Supporter of unity and freedom

Mohammad Hussain Haykal (1888-1956) was one of Egypt's promising politicians preoccupied with pragmatic methods even if he never lost sight of his intellectual goals. A renowned scholar and an accomplished writer, Haykal mastered the techniques of historical research and scholarship as he prepared for a life of service to his nation. Like most young men who hailed from relatively well-to-do families, he travelled to France for his studies and, not surprisingly, accepted the values of Western modernisation. Still, his vocal support of the West waned after two long decades of involvement in Egypt's struggle for liberation from colonialism, which gradually led him to gravitate towards nationalist and religious ideas.

A prolific writer, Haykal served as minister of education, though he eventually abandoned politics to devote his life to the study of the Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) and of his companions. His most important book, The Life of Mohammad, earned him fame, although the dedicated intellectual never compromised any of his core beliefs.

Liberal ideas

Ahmad Lutfi Al Sayyid (see Weekend Review, August 13, 2009) inspired Haykal more than any other Egyptian. Although Al Sayyid's inimitable slogan, "Egypt for the Egyptians", struck a chord among Egyptian masses, Haykal was a thorough liberal who cherished ideal democratic norms. While he welcomed national unity towards independence from Britain and assisted Al Sayyid with the influential Jarida newspaper, Haykal was very much attracted by liberal thoughts, especially those espoused by John Stuart Mill and the English philosopher Herbert Spencer. The latter's all-embracing conception of evolution impressed the young Egyptian, especially when it was enveloped in liberty. Like Spencer, Haykal accepted a balance between modernity (science) and traditions (religiosity). Interestingly, and inspired by liberal ideas, Haykal's very first published article supported ideas promoted by the Arab world's original "feminist" philosopher, Qasim Ameen (1863-1908), who called for the emancipation of women.

Between 1909 and 1912, Haykal studied at the Sorbonne in Paris, where he read French philosophy and literature. This is where he developed the skills necessary to conduct literary criticisms and conduct objective textual analysis. French mentors imparted to him various "methods to search for truth", which led the smart young man to question his own religious beliefs, even if the temptation did not last. Nevertheless, intellectual exposures to liberal values influenced his secular preferences, as he found solace in the words of the great Swiss philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who masterfully combined spiritual values with an impeccable love for freedom as he influenced the French Revolution.

Literary contributions

If Al Sayyid believed that parliamentary procedures ought to be used as checks against authoritarianism, Haykal asserted his conviction that people, through representations in elected institutions, must make ultimate decisions. Likewise, and unlike Al Sayyid, Haykal regarded national freedom and sovereignty as worthy objectives in their own right and entirely compatible with the aspirations of the Egyptian people.

Importantly, and although Haykal did not object to translating key Western writers, his views encompassed both transmission and original creation. In fact, Zaynab, his 1913 novel published under the pseudonym Masri Fallah (an Egyptian peasant), was considered the first modern Egyptian contribution to the genre, as it depicted life in the Egyptian countryside.

Not only was the novel the first to feature a fully described, contemporary setting that discussed relationships between men and women in an honest way, it also used Egyptian vernacular. The successful technique, which was adapted from French novels, told the story of a young peasant girl named Zaynab and of the three men who courted her, and delighted readers unaccustomed to reading such stories in an accessible language.

Political life

When the British Protectorate was lifted on February 28, 1922, and Egypt became independent, Haykal was appointed to the Constitutional Committee that was tasked with drafting a full-fledged constitution for the country a year later. This successful experience secured a ministerial portfolio in 1937 but Haykal grew disillusioned when the Wafd Party — a nationalist popular party that supported moving Egypt from dynastic rule to a constitutional monarchy — won the 1923 parliamentary elections (195 seats versus 19 for the Liberals). He also disliked the demagoguery that mobilised parliamentarians engaged in classic attacks on members' characters. Personal recriminations led Haykal to doubt the value of the party system, although the 1928 suspension of parliament — for a three-year period — saddened him. In 1930, when prime minister Esmail Seddiqi modified the constitution and granted the Crown extensive prerogatives that remained valid until 1936, Haykal understood that constitutionalism had become meaningless.

Reassessment of beliefs

In addition to these serious challenges, Haykal experienced a major loss in December 1925, when his son died in an accident (described in detail in his book Waladi — My Son). Consolation came as he reflected on the meaning of religion, arguing that moral and spiritual values were more important in the life of a nation than any material gains one sought to accumulate. On a trip to Luxor, the ancient city of Thebes that displayed ruins of the temple complexes at Karnak and Luxor along with the tombs in the Valley of the Kings and the Valley of the Queens, Haykal concluded that these were the works of men and women who believed in something. Although "Haykal maintained a high level of personal integrity and was immune to political influence for pecuniary remuneration or other corrupt practices", he was not a particularly devout believer and he continued his secular practices.

Still, his life was about to change after a short essay on the life of the Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) was published in Al Siyasah Al Usbu`iyyah, which borrowed from the French orientalist Emile Dermenghem's sympathetic study of the Qurayshi statesman. The piece was well received in religious circles even if Haykal had no formal theological training. Encouraged to do more, Haykal devoted four years to a careful study of available sources, which led him to produce Hayat Mohammad in 1935. A bestseller, the book added to his fame and in 1936, the now-well-remunerated author went to Makkah to perform the Haj. In 1937, he published a highly readable version of his pilgrimage experiences, which highlighted the values of spiritualism one felt in the cradle of Islam.

In The Life of Mohammad, Haykal provided a detailed biography that revealed the "career" of the Prophet Mohammad (PBUH), a subject that was little studied outside theological circles. He also highlighted the essence of Islam, through the many stories that exemplified the life of the first faithful. The book, which was translated and published in English by Esmail Razi A. Al Farouqi (1921-1986), included a complete narrative of the life of the Prophet (PBUH), a "detailed analysis of pre-Islamic Arabia, the situational context of revelation and a comparative study of the basics of Islamic and Western civilisations". Again, while these topics were generally well understood by scholars, Haykal's version allowed general readers to learn for themselves, and have access to it in a vernacular language.

Controversy over the English version

The 2005 English version of The Life of Mohammad was approved by the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs in Cairo but it only saw light after the Muslim Students Association of the United States and Canada, an agency interested in the promotion of Islamic scholarship, secured publication. According to Al Farouqi — a scholar who hailed from Palestine and earned a masters degree at Harvard along with a doctorate in Western Philosophy from Indiana University, Bloomington, and who was widely recognised by Muslims and non-Muslims as an authority on Islam and comparative religion — Haykal's Hayat Mohammad had a long and strange story. "Its translation into English and publication by the University of Chicago Press was discussed by numerous Western experts in the Forties and early Fifties," he wrote, only to face objections raised by board members, allegedly because the biography was too sympathetic of the Prophet (PBUH).

In the event, no agreement was reached until 1964 but even then, actual printing was postponed. When in 1968 the translation was completed and approved by the Supreme Council of Islamic Affairs in Cairo, "mysterious forces intervened and the University of Chicago Press unilaterally withdrew from its agreement". It was not clear who was behind the unusual effort behind a routine academic endeavour, which necessitated a second accord with Temple University Press, this one in 1969. Another five years passed with little or no action when "mysterious forces again intervened and resulted in the unilateral withdrawal of Temple University Press from its agreement". Despite these repeated cancellations, Al Farouqi updated the translation with the encouragement of the Muslim Students Association of the United States and Canada, and saw it through.

A life of learning

After the 1952 Nasser Revolution, an effort was made to purge parties from alleged corrupt elements, which prompted Haykal to make a final effort to participate in politics. He quickly concluded, however, that the military had no intentions of transferring power to civilian leaders. Regrettably, the Nasser measures sealed the end of parliamentary life in Egypt, as the country entered a tragic period of successive military officers who paraded as Jeffersonian democrats, whereas in reality each and every one behaved like a pharoah. Haykal withdrew from political life but was spared arrest and imprisonment that was the fate of many. He devoted his life to writing, with several manuscripts left incomplete, when he passed away at the age of 68. His son Ahmad published several of surviving texts, including Faith, Knowledge and Philosophy (1964), The Islamic Empire and Sacred Places (1964) and `Uthman Ibn `Affan (1968), among others.

Legacy

When Majid Khadduri questioned Haykal in 1955 about the causes of the failure of parliamentary democracy in Egypt, the reluctant politician apparently confided that Egypt "was never really free to develop a truly democratic regime", as foreign interventions in the country's internal affairs continued unabated. By Haykal's own admission, Egyptians were not prepared to handle parliamentary affairs and they committed a huge error by not adapting the Western model to local norms and traditions. Naturally, he regretted that genuine efforts to empower ordinary people with the abilities to exercise freedom were trampled over, especially by military officers who projected equality while practising suppression. Haykal truly believed that democracy was the best system for mankind and that Egyptians deserved to be free, although he also held that it was essential that they forge their own destinies rather than simply emulate what surely required authenticity.

Devoted to knowledge

Mohammad Hussain Haykal was born in Mansourah, in the Daqhiliyyah Governorate, on August 20, 1888. Raised in a large family — his father married twice and had a dozen children — Haykal was a neglected boy who resented the authoritarian attitude imposed at home.

After primary and secondary education in Cairo, and on the recommendation of one of his father's friends, Ahmad Lutfi Al Sayyid, Haykal entered university to complete a bachelor's degree in 1909.

On Lutfi's recommendation, Haykal enrolled at the Sorbonne University in Paris, from where in graduated with a JD in 1912.

It was in France that he wrote Zaynab, a novel that described life in the countryside, which was largely inspired by his love both of his native land and France. Back in Egypt, Haykal worked as a lawyer and also delved into journalism. His neutralist positions during the First World War created a temporary rift with Al Sayyid, although not enough to cause a permanent drift.

On Al Sayyid's advice, he was elected editor-in-chief of Al Siyasah newspaper, the organ of The Liberal Constitutionalist Party. After 15 years at the helm of a mouthpiece that preached democracy and free elections, Haykal was appointed minister in the Mohammad Mahmoud Pasha government in 1937.

In five successive governments and until the 1952 military coup d'état, Haykal served as minister of education, during which he introduced several reforms, including decentralisation, and established educational zones that made programmes and curricula nationally oriented.

When Mohammad Mahmoud died in 1942, Haykal was elected leader of the Liberal Constitutionalist Party and was also appointed President of the Senate from 1945 to 1950. He withdrew from politics in 1952 and devoted his remaining days to writing.

Haykal died in Cairo on December 8, 1956, and was survived by his wife, son Ahmad and daughter Fayzah Haykal, who taught Egyptology at the American University in Cairo.

Dr Joseph A. Kéchichian is an author, most recently of Faysal: Saudi Arabia's King for All Seasons (2008).

Published on the third Friday of each month, this article is part of a series on Arab leaders who greatly influenced political affairs in the Middle East.