“A just ruler should be to his people what the rain is to the thirsty plants, or even better, for the rain lasts for a while, while the blessings of justice are timeless.”
“Siraj al-Muluk”
Early life and times
A traditional faqih (expert in usul al-fiqh, or, Islamic jurisprudence) born in Tortosa, in northwestern Spain, Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Al Walid Al Turtushi (1059–1127) was best known for his monumental “Siraj al-Muluk” (A Lamp for Rulers), one of the most important works of political theory produced in the medieval world. This student of the Andalusian polymath Ibn Hazm (994-1064) outdid his master. Both Ibn Al ‘Arabi (1164-1240) and Ibn Tumart (1080-1130), the future Mahdi of the Muwahhidun movement in North Africa, considered Al Turtushi to be their teacher as well as inspiration. His opus, which is a large compilation (64 chapters) of moral maxims, anecdotes and advice on rulership, was a unique source of wisdom for generations of political thinkers and stimulated significant work in the “Mirrors for Princes” genre. Although Ibn Khaldun (1332-1395), criticised Al Turtushi in his “Muqaddimah”, allegedly because the “Siraj” was a compilation rather than the product of an original thinker, the Tunisian drew on the Spaniard’s unprecedented historical narrative and praised his pioneering work. Ironically, Ibn Khaldun gave Al Turtushi the title of “Counsellor of the Princes” that was, without a doubt, the highest praise possible.
Jewish origins
Al Turtushi converted from Judaism to Islam, though he was born as Abraham ben Jacob, even if he is far better-known by his Arabic name of Ebrahim Ibn Ya‘qub Al Turtushi (sometimes spelt Al Tartushi). He was nevertheless a tenth-century Sephardic Jew born in a Hispano-Arabic environment where conversations were common. His written works pointed to his Jewish background, especially copious references to Slavic cities he visited over the years, most probably due to his business interests. Whether his business pursuits or even elaborate interests in religious studies were covers for espionage are impossible to rule out. What was known was that his family hailed from Moorish-ruled Tortosa, close to the mouth of the Ebro River, and that he and other members of the family lived in Córdoba too, which indicated the kind of mobility that was associated either with banishment or, more likely, careful placement.
According to the historian Lutz Richter-Bernburg, Al Turtushi travelled to several European cities, including Rome where the Roman emperor Otto I granted him an audience in February 962. This was rather unusual even for the business-minded clergy and underscored Al Turtushi’s credentials as more than a mere merchant. Under what conditions he returned to the Iberian Peninsula, or Al Andalus as it was then known, remain a mystery. Suffice it to say that he may have met with the ‘Umayyad Caliph of Córdoba, Al Hakam II (961–976), the last ruler before the collapse of the Córdoban Caliphate. [His successor, Hesham II was a young boy who could not possibly resist Al Mansour Ibn Abi Amir whose tolerance of Berber immigration into Iberia led to various clashes with Christian princes. With different factions competing for power, the Caliphate finally crumbled in 1031 into independent kingdoms in what came to be known as the era of tawa’if (plural of ta’ifah). Al Turtushi opted to move east just as these internecine disputes took on lives of their own.]
Travels and geographic writings
Several scholars surmised that only a well-connected merchant could have access to the various communities in the late 11th century as Al Turtushi had. He visited Jewish colonies throughout Europe where only an individual who had gained their trust could go. His geographical writings, which identified towns and places, reveal that he crossed the “Adriatic, travelled through Bordeaux, Noirmoutier, St Malo, Rouen, Utrecht, Aix-la-Chapelle, Mainz, Fulda, Soest, Paderborn, Schleswig, Magdeburg [where he met Bulgarian ambassadors at the court of emperor Otto I], then along the right bank of the Elbe and through Prague, Kraków, Augsburg, Cortona, and Trapani”. Such a tour was highly uncommon and allowed the subject to move through the Slavic and Frankish regions of Europe. In his “Kitab al-Masalik wal-Mamalik” (Routes and Kingdoms), the geographer Al Abi ‘Ubayd ‘Abdullah Al Bakri (1014-1094), and even the equally prolific Abu Yahya Zakariyyah Ibn Mohammad Al Qazwini (1203-1283), the author of the majestic “‘Aja’ib al-Makhluqat wa Gara’ib al-Mawjudat” (The Marvels of Creation and Peculiarities of Existing Things), reported on Al Turtushi’s travels. The thorough research by the latter on European dynasties that associated the names of cities with leading groups stood as a unique source. Since Al Turtushi managed to assemble first-hand information from Slavic communities he visited, his was the most “reliable description of the articles of commerce, their prices, local manufactures, the military situation, customs of the people, Jewish life and merchants, Old Russian history and tribes, agriculture, health conditions, food and drinks, the salt pans of Soest, Samanid dirhams struck at Samarkand (914-915) but found in the German region, and much else”. The historian Roman K. Kovalev concluded that most of Al Turtushi’s data was obtained through direct observation, though access to native oral literature and some written works could not be dismissed.
After these European visits, when he was about 25, Al Turtushi opted to go to Makkah. It was unclear whether the decision to go east was made after a conversion, though what is clear is that the philosopher spent the rest of his life, nearly 43 years, in the Muslim World. From his Andalusian home, starting around 1084, Al Turtushi travelled widely in search of knowledge on his way to Makkah, and visited Damascus, Aleppo, Cairo, Alexandria and Baghdad. Along the way, he engaged with leading scholars of his epoch, though he finally settled in Alexandria, Egypt, where he taught at a madrasah. Over time, Al Turtushi became a major jurist of the Maleki school, as he strongly opposed the Esma‘ili ideology of the Fatimid dynasty. In Alexandria, Abu Bakr Ibn Al ‘Arabi, Abu Bakr Mohammad Ibn Al Hussain Al Mayurqi, and a dozen other theologians were among his students, most of whom became foremost jurists in their own rights. A deeply religious man, Al Turtushi was renowned for his piety, and seldom sought wealth by ingratiating himself to powerful figures. He lived a modest life and earned his keep through his teachings and writings.
“Kitab Siraj al-Muluk”
Although the practice of providing political knowhow could be traced to ancient times, the phenomenon gained notoriety among ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, Chinese, Indians and Persians. The most famous Fürstenspiegel (“mirror for princes”) is still Niccolò Machiavelli’s celebrated magnum opus “The Prince”, where the Italian advised his prince how best to “sustain his leadership role, govern more effectively, and secure his realm”. Al Turtushi’s contribution to the “mirrors for princes” literature stood the test of time.
When he arrived in Egypt, Cairo was ruled by the Fatimid dynasty and Al Afdal Ibn Badr Al Jamali (1066-1121) was the vizier, a tyrannical and oppressive ruler whose reign was catastrophic. Naturally, as Al Turtushi observed Fatimid rule, much of what passed for governance left very strong impressions on him. Beyond anger over what could be called Al Jamali’s glorified dictatorship and mere reflection on his limited skills, Al Turtushi embarked on refining his views and shaped a special philosophy that, over time, evolved into a political theory. The result of these deliberations was the masterpiece “Kitab Siraj al-Muluk”, which he “dedicated to the new Fatimid vizier, Al Ma’mun Al Bata’ahi, hoping that it would guide him to the good of his people”.
Fortunately, the “Siraj al-Muluk” was well received not only by the vizier, but also by a several scholars and intellectuals. In fact, the compilation was so detailed that most learned men referred to it whenever they needed to verify certain facts, as most enjoyed its numerous anecdotes. The book provided the reader with Al Turtushi’s views on kingship and statecraft, carefully embedded among hundreds of sayings and stories. The author quoted other jurists and thinkers and always introduced key concepts under the “just ruler” category, to differentiate the ideal sovereign from tyrannical and thus un-Islamic ones. Al Turtushi’s relied heavily on religious precepts of kingship and justice — as enshrined in the Quran, the Sunna of the Prophet (PBUH) and the examples of the rightly guided caliphs — and supplemented them with the wisdom of Greek philosophers. An erudite scholar in every meaning of the term, Al Turtushi presented astute analyses of different kingdoms, both historical and contemporary, which intrigued Muslim rulers. Inasmuch as he did not limit his enquiries to the Muslim realm, Al Turtushi enlightened his “prince” on various examples from the Roman Empire, Byzantium, Sassanid Persia, China, India, and even the northern Spanish Christian kingdoms of Asturias and Navarre. The sum total of these vastly different illustrations added to his authoritative narrative, and he telegraphed his Muslim prince that justice was neither an exclusive phenomenon limited to his reign, nor devoid of faith. Yet, his willingness to draw inspiration from both Muslim as well as non-Muslim paradigms strengthened his analyses, further highlighting the monumental scope of the “Siraj al-Muluk”.
Al Turtushi’s book stood out for its encyclopaedic dimensions, and provided considerable material for Muslim political thinkers of subsequent generations. Simply stated, few, including the great Ibn Khaldun, assembled the wealth of historical information and political insights that were contained in the “Siraj al-Muluk”.
Legacy to Arabs and Muslims
Al Turtushi devoted nearly 43 years of his life to advancing scholarship in Egypt, although he somehow found the time to also be involved in political developments back in his homeland, Al Andalus. Even at a distance, he was a major supporter of the efforts of the Almoravid emir Yousuf Ibn Tashfin (1006-1106), who founded the city of Marrakech in today’s Morocco. Tashfin earned his reputation as the leader who conquered the ta’ifa kingdoms and reunited Andalusia in 1090. From his Cairenese station, Al Turtushi issued an important fatwa to legitimise this Almoravid conquest of Al Andalus, “a development he believed was necessary to ensure the survival of Islamic Spain in the face of a militant northern Christian drive to conquer the Iberian Peninsula”. Remarkably, one of Al Turtushi’s students, Mohammad Ibn Tumart, the founder of the Almohad dynasty that promoted a puritanical reform movement, later founded a powerful Berber dynasty that deposed the Almoravids.
Countless Muslim and non-Muslim scholars, along with many leaders, pored over the “Siraj al-Muluk” in their search for inspiration. The opus served as an early manual of rule based on morality and justice and became a widely read masterpiece of Islamic political philosophy.
Dr Joseph A. Kéchichian is an author, most recently of, “Legal and Political Reforms in Sa‘udi Arabia” (London: Routledge, 2013).
This article is the twentieth of a series on Muslim thinkers who greatly influenced Arab societies across the centuries.
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List of works
Al Turtushi may have written 22 books but only nine survived. “Siraj al-Muluk”, his best-known work, is available in various Arabic editions, including Beirut: Dar al-Misriyyah-Lubnaniyyah, 1994, or online at
http://read.kitabklasik.net/2009/11/siraj-al-muluk-abu-bakar-muhammad-bin.html
Maximiliano Agustín Alarcón Santón translated “Siraj al-Muluk” into Spanish and published it in Madrid in 1930; his “Lámpara de los príncipes” was republished in 2010 by the Instituto de Estudios Albacetenses. Regrettably, it is not available in English.
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Selected readings
A. Ben Abdesselem, “Al-Turtushi”, “Encyclopedia of Islam II”, Leiden and London: E. J. Brill and Co, 1965, pp 739-740.
Marius Canard, “Ibrahim ibn Ya’qub et sa relation de voyage en Europe”, in “Études d’orientslisme Lévi-Provençal, II” (Paris, 1962), pp 503-508.
Joseph A. Kéchichian, (with R. Hrair Dekmejian), “The Just Prince: A Manual of Leadership”, including an authoritative English translation of the “Sulwan al-Muta‘ fi ‘Udwan al-Atba’” (Consolation for the Ruler During the Hostility of Subjects) by Muhammad Ibn Zafar al-Siqilli. London: Dar Al Saqi Books, 2003.
André Miquel, “L’Europe occidentale dans la relation arabe d’Ibrahim b. Ya‘qub”, “Annales de I‘École supérieure des sciences” (1966), pp 1048-1064.
André Miquel, “Ibrahim b. Ya‘kub”, in “Encyclopaedia of Islam III”, Leiden and London: E. J. Brill and Co, 1969, p 991
Lutz Richter-Bernburg, “Ibrahim ibn Ya‘qub al-Isra’ili al-Turtushi”, in David Buisseret, ed, “The Oxford Companion to World Exploration”, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, Volume 1, pp 402b-403b.